Routine Site Monitoring CRA

Question: Describe about the Responsibilities of CRA? Answer: Introduction According to Al-Sallami et al. (2010) Clinical Research Associate (CRA) also known as clinical monitor is a professional related to health care service that perform activities that are related to medical research specially in clinical trials. The primary objective and purpose is to prioritize the workload for meeting the timelines while multiplying protocols. This assignment deals with the job functions of the CRA along with their responsibilities. CRA CRA is Clinical Research Associate that are health care professionals those manages the assigned activities for ensuring the completion of the work in desired time and within budget in observance with a good practice clinically (Lankheet et al. 2014). The daily activities are managed as well as new methods and procedures are deployed for performing new assignments. In addition to this, the CRAs provides occasional; visits to those clinics where the sites are initiated until that gets closed. According to Seger and Vogeser (2010) the purpose of the CRAs is to protect the subject by monitoring them occasionally for ICH or GCP fulfillment. For that, the required tools and protocols are along with lab kits and study materials are planned and implemented according to the needs. Responsibilities of CRA Myers (2006) commented on the fact that the major responsibility of CRA is to perform visits that are essential for monitoring. The CRA qualifies potential sites for investigation and also train and initiate the sites of investigation. Moreover, they are also concerned with the routine monitoring visits are also close the visits. The CRA also is focused on completing the trips of monitoring accurately that are documented as well as inventoried. According to Murray et al. (2010) the CRA also helps in ensuring whether the site regulatory binder is current. They also provide support to the initial documentation of the regulatory laws that also helps in the recruitment process. In addition to this, CRA assist CRA manager for the expansion of Clinical; Monitoring Plan. Moreover, this also gives ability to work with little supervision (Poquette et al. 2005). The CRA also manages the learning parameters that include clinical study, preparation of supplies to the clinics, worksheets regarding data audit also done by the CRA. In addition to this Escudero-Ortiz et al. (2014) commented on the fact that the activities of CRA is also concerned with the evaluation as well as selection of the CROs and sites that includes CRO kick-off meetings, steering committee meetings, investigator meeting etc. They also are responsible for representing the clinical operations that are discussed in the team meetings regarding the project. According to Abubakr et al. (2010) they also are highly focused on the quality, collaboration, open communication, teamwork as well as integration. The CRAs have excellent technical skills of writing and have enough experience while working in project teams. Their interpersonal skills and excellent communication along with computer proficiency also helps them in monitoring the activities that are conducted within the organiza tion. In addition to this, Al-Sallami et al. (2010) had an opinion that the CRAs are highly flexible and integrated in their working attitude. They are quiet experienced in working with multiple teams of multiple levels, external sites as well as working in dynamic environment. According to Seger and Vogeser (2010) the CRA are very practical in their approach and they are active along with highly focused towards goals. These people are also good decision makers which they have excelled while working in a dynamic environment as well as judgmental. They work in a collaborate manner and are highly focused on team work and have an outstanding concentration in detail. In addition to this, from the viewpoint of Seger and Vogeser (2010) these people are so trained that they have the ability to work under very little supervision and work continuously for improvement of the quality. Along with this, these CRAs are highly responsible for checking the serious adverse events that results death due to long time illness or prolonged hospitalization. They sometimes are called for leading the assigned project team for Site Management (Rice, 2015). Conclusion It is seen throughout the assignment that CRAs are the people who are responsible for the conduct of the clinical activities in an overall manner. They establish as well as maintain the crucial and foremost message with the clinical sites and participate dynamically into team meetings. These CRAs play a pivotal role in developing investigators as well study staff trainings as required. They co-ordinate as well as attend and participate in the coordination meetings, HCRI project teams and sponsors for the welfare of the clinic. Overall the CRAs are the most integral and important part of the clinic since with their help, the clinics operates most efficiently. References Abubakr, A., Ifeayni, I. and Wambacq, I. (2010). The efficacy of routine hyperventilation for seizure activation during prolonged video-electroencephalography monitoring. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 17(12), pp.1503-1505. Al-Sallami, H., Barras, M., Green, B. and Duffull, S. (2010). Routine Plasma Anti-Xa Monitoring is Required for Low-Molecular-Weight Heparins. Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 49(9), pp.567-571. Escudero-Ortiz, V., Prez-Ruixo, J. and Valenzuela, B. (2014). Development and Validation of an HPLC-UV Method for Sorafenib Quantification in Human Plasma and Application to Patients With Cancer in Routine Clinical Practice. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 36(3), pp.317-325. Lankheet, N., Knapen, L., Schellens, J., Beijnen, J., Steeghs, N. and Huitema, A. (2014). Plasma Concentrations of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors Imatinib, Erlotinib, and Sunitinib in Routine Clinical Outpatient Cancer Care. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 36(3), pp.326-334. Murray, L., Ramakrishnan, S., O'Toole, L., Manifold, I., Purohit, O. and Coleman, R. (2010). Adjuvant trastuzumab in routine clinical practice and the impact of cardiac monitoring guidelines on treatment delivery. The Breast, 19(5), pp.339-344. Myers, M. (2006). Automated blood pressure measurement in routine clinical practice. Blood Pressure Monitoring, 11(2), pp.59-62. Poquette, M., Lensmeyer, G. and Doran, T. (2005). Effective Use of Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC/MS) in the Routine Clinical Laboratory for Monitoring Sirolimus, Tacrolimus, and Cyclosporine. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 27(2), pp.144-150. Seger, C. and Vogeser, M. (2010). Immunosuppressant drug monitoring a routine undertaking? 1. LaboratoriumsMedizin, 34(3), p.-. Rice, E. (2015). Predictors of Successful Clinical Performance in Associate Degree Nursing Students.Nurse Educator, p.1.

Tips For Writing A Sample Of Personal Reflection Essay

Tips For Writing A Sample Of Personal Reflection EssayA sample of personal reflection essay is very useful to examine the interests of an individual. It is a technique used by the people to study a person's interest and characteristics. In other words, it is a tool to write about something that interests you.The first idea is to figure out what your own interest is. Try to find something that you would love to experience. Next, create a statement that summarizes that interest.Now, put down some ideas for the topic in which you want to have this basic outline. There are some concepts and facts that you will need to research in order to have this idea. You can use the Internet to find these facts and information. You will also need to find some resources in order to obtain some ideas.Right in the beginning of your essay what you want to say. The next step is to choose a theme for your writing. For example, you can choose to describe your personality, or maybe you can describe your chil dhood. After writing, make sure that you keep the outline until you have developed your essay.After the outline, you will write the introduction. Then, you will go to the main body of your essay. You will then write the conclusion of your essay. After finishing your work, you can compare your work with other writing samples to have your final version of your writing sample.Writing is the process of expressing your thoughts, feelings, ideas, and thoughts. As mentioned, writing is a way to express thoughts, feelings, ideas, and thoughts. If you are truly interested in writing, it is a very important technique to study.Having a sample of personal reflection essay is a good idea because you can start your writing career in a positive way. Good thing is that you can read the examples on the Internet so you do not have to worry about reading the sample in your home.

Birthmark Essays (437 words) - The Birth-Mark, Georgiana, Hawthorne

Birthmark In The Birthmark, Hawthorne described a young scientist who killed his own wife by pursuing perfect future (Hawthorne, 220) while trying to remove a birthmark on his wife?s face. His name was Aylmer. He was a good scientist according to any standard. He was smart, diligent, and an eminent proficient (Hawthorne, 203) in natural science. Hawthorne was not against science; he was against perfect science, against the people who wanted a perfect science. Aylmer was so devoted to science that his marriage with Georgiana, his wife, was intertwined with his love of science. (Hawthorne, 203) A man loved science even more than his love of his own wife, no wonder he would sacrifice her life just for a perfect look on her face. Hawthorne was telling a truth, that a man has to be a good human first before he can be a good scientist. In the story, Hawthorne gradually set out the idea that Nature is equal to everyone; there is no perfection in the nature. As he said, Nature, in one shape or another, stamps ineffaceably on all her productions. (Hawthorne, 205) Georgiana was a pretty lady; Nature has to bear a birthmark on her face in order to keep the balance, any attempt to remove it should and would result in disaster ? that leaded us to another conclusion ? Nature can not be changed or altered, or a punishment will come in someday. Interestingly, Hawthorne?s idea about dream is very scientific, Truth often finds its way to the mind close muffled in robes of sleep, and then speaks with uncompromising directness of matters in regard to which we practice an unconscious self-deception during our waking moments. (Hawthorne, 207) This disclosed that Hawthorne himself was a good philosopher and scientist, which gave more credentials to this article. Sometimes, people concentrate too much on what science can do and how important science is in our lives. They developed a false trust in science. Aylmer thought he was competent to remove the birthmark, I feel myself fully competent to render this dear cheek as faultless as its fellow; and the, most beloved, what will be my triumph when I shall have corrected what Nature left imperfect in her fairest work! (Hawthorne, 207) Also, Aylmer appeared to believe that, by the plainest scientific logic, it was altogether within the limits of possibility to discover this long-sought medium. (Hawthorne, 211) But science can never solve all the problems, nor can human develop such a science. Even Aylmer himself, in his experiments, Much as he had accomplished, she could not but observe that his most sp English Essays

Communication Effectiveness in the Management of Virtual Teams

Communication Effectiveness in the Management of Virtual Teams Introduction Various organisations currently operate at the global business interface that is characterised by intense competition, dynamic changes in consumer needs, emerging trends of new products, changing technology, and different cultures.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Communication Effectiveness in the Management of Virtual Teams specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such businesses strive to maintain operations that are geared towards striking a balance between the influences of the above factors. Most multinational businesses usually establish subsidiary branches in numerous countries across transnational borders with a view of expanding their market bases by attracting international consumers. For this reason, implementation of virtual teams of different employees from culturally diverse origins becomes a crucial interplay in the involved businesses since they facilitate communication amongst diverse consume rs, employees, and subsidiary firms. Currently, many businesses are adopting virtual management whereby managers do not necessarily need to maintain physical contact with their employees. The research proposal aims at investigating effective communication and motivation techniques in the management of in virtual teams across transnational borders. Background According to Huang, Kahai, and Jestice (2010), virtual team management is a phenomenon that surpasses the limitations of time and space boundaries that are experienced in visual interactions. Misunderstanding of cultural differences, marginalisation, language barrier, team disunity, and mistrust are some of the issues that are associated with virtual team management. For instance, the GE Energy, an electricity management company in Atlanta recently faced an increasing number of diverse cultural workforces in its areas of operations. This situation led to the development of programs such as the GE Connect and WebEx to provide an insight into ‘Working in Virtual Teams’.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The GE Connect and WebEx software adds a phone tab to the GE WebEx connects. The system can command the computer to manage call dials, history, waiting indicators, media, and instant messaging among others. Employees who do not understand common communication languages such as English among other dialects can successfully interact with their colleagues using the system to improve their communication. This situation is an implication of a need to conduct more research on the techniques and solutions to the challenges that arise from the management of virtual transactional teams due then unavailability of a common language. Literature Review A virtual team refers to a group of individuals who interact using internet platforms and profiles rather than maintaining face-to-face comm unication (Chen, Chen, Chu 2008). On the other hand, a transactional virtual team is an organised group of persons who carry out various activities that are related to trade despite time, boundaries, and space limitations (Chen, Chen, Chu 2008). Virtual teams have become increasingly important for transnational companies. They provide a framework for addressing challenges that result from modern rationalised organisations owing to the distribution of workforce. Capece and Costa (2009) posit that the advancement of technology and globalisation has led to an increased flexibility in organisations as they seek to gain competitive advantages over the rival companies. The premise of virtual teams is to address the location and accessibility of employees due to the unrelenting workforce demographics in the modern world. As a result, the embracement of such teams helps organisations to gain access to diverse expertise and quality-improvement systems whilst promoting workplace interaction s.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Communication Effectiveness in the Management of Virtual Teams specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this proposal, qualitative methods such as interviews, focus groups, and participant observations were deemed suitable for the research in question. The interviews will be used to gather demographic information that will be used to design parameters such as the average age, level of the awareness of cultural diversity, and comparison statistics among others (Creswell 2013). The methods will be guided by respondent characteristics such as feelings, beliefs, perceptions, and ideas among others. Such aspects will guide the researcher to design appropriate interview schedules. Information concerning the communication techniques and patterns of the organisation will be gathered through textual analysis and archival research (Rawbone 2015). Both purposive and snowball sampling techniques have been deemed appropriate for the selection of the participants. Purposive sampling will ensure the maximisation of rich information while the snowballing technique will help the researcher reach the respondents by asking them to recommend their colleagues (Punch 2013). Regardless of the perceived effectiveness of virtual teams in the management of contemporary organisations, various problems have been identified. At the outset, the physical dispersion of persons around the world leads to the development of diversity issues that hinder smooth communication. Diversity management has been deemed one of the most significant challenges in running of organisations. Leaders who have been habituated to the outmoded organisational frameworks encounter a number of management difficulties. The organisation of the new teamwork also requires the leaders to assess the ability of the traditional management approaches to meet the necessities of the virtual programmes. This tendency to shift fr om the traditional to new forms of leadership poses an enormous risk to the organisation.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Overton, Hills, and Dixon (2007) also affirm that language barrier is a crucial problem that leads to communication shortcomings in the event of adopting virtual teamwork management. There is a tendency to interpret context differently as individuals perceive ideas, values, and beliefs uniquely. For instance, Overton, Hills, and Dixon (2007) reveal that the difference between high and low context cultures has been evidenced to interpret information differently. Embracing Effective Communication and Motivation in the Management of Virtual Teams A research conducted by Overton, Hills, and Dixon (2007) in the UK on the integration of effective communication techniques into organisational activities revealed that it significantly improved the delivery of a range of skills such as leadership, management, and understanding of foreign languages among others. It was affirmed that the techniques were applicable to the management of virtual teams to foster the learning of different languages for effective communication. According to Nash and Kallenbach (2009), effective communication tools can be used efficiently to ensure proper management of the virtual teams. This technique can also be used to increase outreach programmes to rural communities or places that are hard to reach within a given time such as companies with international branches. The only issue of concern raised in the study was that most of the adults were unaware of such techniques being embraced in current systems of management (Aragon Johnson 2002). Companies that support effective communication significantly lead to the improvement of employee motivation. Employees who strive to understand other languages make the use of effective communication and other resources that are based online. Literacy is among the key strengths that are created through electronic communication. The web can provide an excellent means of developing skills in the wake of digital technology (Mishan 2005; Wagner and Konzma 2005 ). According to Scott and Wildman (2015), most businesses use virtual teams to grasp larger market shares besides overcoming geographical barriers (Scott Wildman 2015). Bachmann (2006) attested that communication enables people of different cultural backgrounds to develop shared models besides creation of group identities. It is highly believed that collective perceptions of other people, living environments, information, or the world create a mutual understanding among the members of particular groups. A survey that was completed by researchers such as Yip and Dempster (2005) identified that communication via the internet compelled many companies to run virtual teamwork. These studies failed to mention the aspect of embracing cultural diversity and understanding among employees since it was limited to electronic communication (Davis, Fletcher, Absalom 2010). Technology plays a critical role in conveying information between individuals through virtual organisations (Siebdrat, Hoeg l, Ernst 2009). Virtual teams with diverse cultural backgrounds can be managed efficiently using robust cybernetic information channels with a view of diminishing the ethnic, racial, and/or geographical gaps that exist between the members of the teams. Dekker, Rutte, and Van den Berg (2008) recommended that companies should implement up-to-date technology with a view of establishing and maintaining virtual teams. Language complexities, cultural misunderstanding, and marginalisation always affect communication. Lockwood (2015) recommended a need for training staff in communication, leadership skills, and different cultural issues that affect the management of teams across transnational borders. Embracing Clear Understanding of Different Cultures for Coexistence in Virtual Team Environments Culture is a combination of values, norms, beliefs, and orientations that exist in a given society. They are transmitted from one generation to the next (Leidner, Alavi, Kayworth 2010). On the ot her hand, cultural diversity is a mix of people having different national and linguistic characteristics. According to Erez (2010), culture is a conception that is passed from one generation to the next. It comprises aspects such as beliefs, art, knowledge, laws, customs, and habits that are exhibited by a person within a particular society. Most people use culture as the backbone for communication and develop knowledge about particular attitudes towards life. Earley and Mosakowski (2000) posit that respect for cultural diversity brings about the appreciation of heterogeneity in the values and norms of people from different backgrounds. This situation brings people together either face-to-face or virtually. Wildman and Griffith (2015) mention that businesses are currently faced with challenges of virtual team management that affect efficiency. They recommend that leaders should be knowledgeable on tools for exploring cultural diversity. The leaders must be well conversant with inter personal cues, cultural differences and diversity inclusion. Lastly, they attested that virtual communication and mutual leader-follower relationships are paramount to the active contribution towards improved business performance (Wildman Griffith 2015). Globalisation has resulted in increased virtual teams across transnational borders. Intercultural communication and interaction are essential due to the ever-increasing globalisation that has led to the movement of labour across national, regional, and continental boundaries. Embracing management with clear communication technology has led to the emergence of virtual communities who share information on different cultural values, beliefs, norms, and languages among other characteristics (Zakaria, Amelinckx, Wilemon 2004). A research that was conducted by Alpaslan et al. (2004) revealed that poor understanding of other people’s cultures and languages accounted for inadequate performance in cybernetic communication. This situ ation led to misunderstanding and distrust amongst individuals and groups in the organisations. However, the creation of forums to educate the employees on embracing different cultures proved to be efficient in appreciation of virtual teams (Whatley, Zaitseva, Zakrzewska 2009).The study does not clearly indicate how communication should be implemented in such situations. Motivation, Good Leadership, and Trust Motivation is also a crucial factor that has been proved efficient in addressing issues that arise from the management of virtual teams. Individual enthusiasm is an aspect that enhances morale and liveliness in communication. Virtual interactions are enhanced through motivation with a view of alleviating glitches that arise from monotonous environments (Holton 2001). A deeper comprehension of subjective motivational factors should be considered because each person gets motivated in different ways. Different cultures also have features that derive individual motivation. Such fa ctors are paramount to the formation of sound virtual teams that are prepared with a broad base of knowledge about their cultures and those of other individuals. Cifuentes and Murphy (2000), posit that other factors such as attention, confidentiality, satisfaction, and relevance among others are components of the sources of motivation. If they are embraced appropriately, they can improve a person’s engagement in virtual discussions that close the gap between varying cultural teams. An individual belief in the ability to achieve personal goals is significantly improved where organisations encourage motivation and autonomy. However, the researchers have not highlighted communication as a crucial element for the achievement of such objectives; hence, it ensures that the individuals are satisfied and open-minded. Maintenance of enthusiastic workforce ensures relevance and improved confidence (Cifuentes Murphy 2000). This situation can be achieved through active involvement in le arning or projects that encompass the performance of employees from different cultural backgrounds. Both employees and managers should be encouraged to show enthusiasm for intercultural activities with a view of acquiring various competencies that practiced by diverse groups. However, communication is crucial for the achievement of such objectives; hence, the parties involved should be in a position to speak a common language (Cifuentes Murphy 2000). Leadership is another aspect that has underpinned efficient control and management of virtual teams. According to Malhotra Majchrzak (2004), virtuous leadership in an organisation ensures the definition of clear goals and role in an attempt to realise quality outcome. Shachaf and Hara (2006) revealed that virtual team leadership helped in the efficient management of employees in organisations where diversity inclusion was highly regarded. Another aspect of leadership is ensuring the provision of mentorship and clear definition of resp onsibilities amongst diverse team members. Collaboration refers to the engagement and participation of people in a group to solve an issue based on a mutual agreement (Bjà ¸rn Ngwenyama 2009). Miloslavic, Wildman, and Thayer (2015) have attested that virtual teams are becoming popular in work environments. They result in the development of new techniques that are in line with the demands of the global market. This situation leads to increased work efficiency. However, leaders are cautioned to consider issues that can arise due to cultural differences and to embrace collaboration among the members of virtual teams to get the success of the organisation. Communication is crucial in bonding the employees; hence, robust communication channels should be developed in various entities that embrace virtual team management (Miloslavic, Wildman, Thayer 2015). Shachaf and Hara (2006) posit that leadership and trust are two factors that must go together when handling employees in virtual tea ms. People have unique and vast views, cultural differences, and technical skills among other factors. The researchers have failed to show how leaders engage employees in commitment to instil a sense of trust. Therefore, leaders should ensure that individuals who are included in the virtual teamwork show commitment to duty by instilling a sense of trust in them with a view of winning their attention (Shachaf Hara 2006). Jarvenpaa, Shaw, and Staples (2004) also attested that trust that was built among virtual team members and their leaders led to efficient work processes and quality outcome due to improved motivation, collaboration, and collective problem solving strategies that dependent on trust. It was perceived that trust reduced indistinctness and doubt in social viewpoints. A problem of how the trust is build is evident from such comments since effective leadership and management must be embraced. Carter et al. (2015) in his article on Leadership for global virtual teams for t he facilitation of team processes attested that leadership through collaborative interaction is paramount to the efficient management of businesses at the global level. As a result, global organisations require the development of virtual teams through effective management. They have attested that technology in communication has been used successfully to link virtual teams through proper leadership. They have further mentioned the importance of understanding cultural background of employees, nationalities, team dynamics, and communication technology to address issues that arise from virtual team management (Carter et al. 2015). Carte Deines (2013) also attested that team leadership results in improved networking among individuals who are both within and outside the teams. Performance and team development are fundamental functions of decent leadership (Bell Kozlowki 2002). A primary challenge that virtual teams experience is the realisation of efficiency during the implementation of concerted goals. The researchers have not elaborated the realisation of efficiency can be achieved. A better way of ensuring that leaders accomplish such tasks is by the sound institution of self-management and performance standards among the various parties that are involved in teamwork (Hunsake r Hunsaker 2008). Effective leaders should ensure that trust exists together with increased and efficient goal setting techniques that take into account the expectations of employees. They should also give room for continuous feedback to allow competencies and encourage cultural appreciation. Furthermore, Gazor (2012) posits that wise leaders use physical meetings to solve various challenges. However, in situations where geographical differences hinder communication, teleconferencing, and videoconferencing offer the best solutions. In conclusion, the essay has reviewed various pieces of literature on the possible communication solutions to the issues associated with virtual teams in the ef fective management of organisations. Leadership roles are paramount to the appropriate handling of productivity issues that arise in diverse physical work environments. Communication has been seen as a crucial factor in the management of virtual teams across transactional borders. To ensure effective implementation of information communication and technology networks amongst employees in different physical locations, an understanding of diverse cultural values, consumer behaviour, and dynamic innovation is highly encouraged. Statement of the Problem Although virtual team management has ensured smooth running of global businesses, a plethora of challenges is still encountered. One of the primary challenges that are experienced is technology disparity. A sizeable gap is seen in the advancement of technology between the developed and developing nations. A research that was conducted by the United Nations Economic and Social Council (2006) explicated a number of ways such as stimulation of international technology transfer and learning among others than can be adopted by developing countries to narrow the gap. While many companies appreciate the introduction and embracement of virtual teams in their organisational systems, many questions have been left unresolved. How do individuals of different languages and from varied culture share a common goal, understanding, and knowledge without face-to-face meeting? How can such people develop trust among themselves? What kind of technology should the managers use successfully among these people? Such questions among others need to be addressed since they form the basis of the challenges that arise from the management of virtual transactional teams. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) encompasses communication equipment that is used in chatting sites, e-mail, websites, teleconferencing, and videoconferencing among others (Capece Costa 2009). The interconnection between various employee groups in diverse geogr aphical landscapes is greatly hindered due to poor communication and communication channels (Song Liu 2013). The world’s population appreciates the improved development of electronic information transfer that has ensured smooth organisation and distribution of duties (Cheshin et al. 2013). Improved technology has resulted in the development of robust communication means that have ensured quick response to various organisations, which have embraced decentralisation due to the existence of virtual teams. Nowadays, teams can conform and establish collaboration through electronic communications channels that are remotely located. However, there is still a need to exploit the varied opportunities that arise from international interactions. Although communication channels such as teleconferencing and videoconferencing among others means exist, other issues such as cultural diversity, understanding of different languages have not been fully addressed (Piccoli, Powell, Ives 2004). The contemporary world is characterised by fast development virtual teams with varied cultural, personal, and functional origins. If such topographies are not handled effectively, they can cause problems such as conflicts, disunity, and mistrust in organisations. The differences can be heightened due to the existence of geographical differences, poor communication, and lack of motivation, misunderstanding, and failure to appreciate the significance of cultural diversity and movement of labour across transnational boundaries (Piccoli, Powell, Ives 2004). Virtual teams can only perform well if proper management that embraces proper communication, motivation, appreciates cultural diversity, and creates collaboration based on the common goals of virtual teams among others. A majority of the studies have revealed that communication is the sole factor for the efficient management of virtual teams (Piccoli, Powell, Ives 2004). For instance, Taha, Ahmed, and Ale Ebrahim (2009) upheld such views by mentioning that advanced communication technology has enabled international business leaders to manage teams in distant work environments. The development of technology, especially in the twenty-first century, is a timely framework for the passage of information from one party to another by teleconferencing, videoconferencing, e-mailing, social networking, and online chatting. Although the aforementioned underpinnings are highly regarded, virtual team management requires a consideration of factors such as cultural diversity, respect, trust, and motivation among other aspects (Taha, Ahmed, Ale Ebrahim 2009). The researchers failed to mention how to incorporate such factors in communication to solve issues of virtual transactional teams. Incorporation of such factors in communication promotes the realisation of a common goal and understanding of the values, beliefs, and attitudes of diverse cultures. Another problem that should be addressed is how a company will ensure appr opriate handling of the above-mentioned communication factors. According to Geister, Konradt, and Hertel (2006), educating employees on the use of the videoconferencing or teleconferencing techniques alone is not satisfactory move towards the realisation of harmonious virtual teams. For instance, the existence of communication channels in organisations that embrace virtual teamwork does not necessarily mean that the employees have a common language that enhances the flow of information (Abbott, Gilbert, Rosinski 2013). In such circumstances, how does the company resolve the underlying virtual team issues? Other research works indicate that motivation among the employees results in the apt formulation of solutions in diverse work environments. Geister, Konradt, Hertel (2006) attested that group motivation is significant in the creation of collaborative workforce where individuals come from different cultural origins. This set of circumstances enables them to identify and appreciate various values, beliefs, and attitudes among other aspects of the cultures of their colleagues. The researchers limited their studies to virtual team motivation and never embraced factors such as effective communication and understanding of cultural diversity to solve problems of virtual transactional teams. According to Keller (2008), motivation encourages attention, confidence, relevance, and individual satisfaction. However, the research holds that enthusiasm only serves as a solution to managerial problems that are associated with virtual teams rather than examining the effects of other elements such as cultural diversity. It proofs that there is limited information on the methods (effective communication and embracing cultural diversity) to resolve the poor understanding of cultural differences that exist in virtual transactional teams (McArdle Anderson2001). Research Purpose The purpose of the study is to investigate effective communication, motivation, and understanding of cultural diversity to solve issues that arise from virtual team management across transnational borders. Hypothesis H0: Embracing effective communication, motivation, and understanding of cultural diversity do not help in solving problems that arise from the management of virtual teams across transnational borders. Main Research Question Does effective communication, motivation, understanding of cultural diversity solve the problems that arise from the management of virtual teams across transactional borders? Study Objectives To determine whether the proper implementation of effective communication, motivation, and understanding of cultural diversity solve problems that arise from the management of virtual teams across transactional borders To examine various motivational and leadership techniques that leads to collaboration among individuals of different cultural origins in the virtual teams Limitation of the Study The study will focus on the investigation of effective communic ation and understanding of cultural diversity to solve the problems that arise from the management of virtual teams across transactional borders. It will be limited to qualitative research design and analysis. The results will be used to illustrate a problem of communication, poor motivation and misunderstanding of cultural diversity in virtual teams to ensure that people understand the problem. The results will then be used to create awareness embracing effective communication and understanding of different cultures in organisations that practice virtual teamwork rather than the implementation of the plans. As a result, the findings will be based on the generalisation of the available information. Variables Various characteristics that will be measured include dependent variables such as the type of motivation, communication, trust, interactions, and leadership among others. The independent variables will cover the issues that are associated with virtual teams such cultural diversi ty among others. Methodology Research Design and Sampling plan Since the study focuses on investigation of effective communication, motivation and understanding of cultural diversity to solve communication problems in virtual teams across transnational borders, the research will entail a qualitative research design (Mahoney 2010). The nature of the research proposed guarantees investigation techniques thus its findings will be used to illustrate how effective communication can the understanding of cultural diversity in virtual teams are essential. It will be conducted in the various companies in the USA. Managers of the selected companies will be identified to seek contact information that will be useful in the facilitation of the research. Data will be obtained from the focus groups and interviews among other qualitative methods. Interview schedules will be subjected to the employees and managers of selected global companies that have organised virtual teams. Sample Size and Sampli ng Strategy 25 respondents will be selected randomly from each of the multinational companies. 20-percent of them will be from the managerial levels. The four companies to be included will be identified through secondary sources of data such as journals and articles on multinational co-operations based in the USA. The contacts their managers will be contacted using information available about their contact managers or phone numbers indicated in the secondary data. Research Instruments The interview schedule will be semi-structured to ensure detailed information capture. The respondents are expected to understand the both the instruments easily since they will be written in simple English (Cooper Emory 2002). Respondents’ feelings, beliefs, perceptions, and ideas will also ensure that the researcher uses the interview schedules. Some of the questions that will feature in the interview include the following. What do you understand by the term electronic communication? Does th e company embrace robust communication techniques? Does your company use electronic communication in educating virtual employees on common language for your business? Rationale for the Selection The USA was selected as the study area because the country has many multinational companies that embrace diversity inclusion and virtual team management. Rich information on the communication problems will be obtained from multinational companies that have established numerous subsidiaries in different geographic locations worldwide. This strategy will set a framework for studying the management of virtual teams in diversity. The chosen sampling design is also appropriate since the study will focus on the qualitative data. The research after evaluation will further analyse the implementation of motivational techniques and effective communication in ensuring effective communication among virtual teams. Data Analysis for Demographic Variables The demographic variables that will be considered in the study include age, education, virtual learning environment, blackboard usage, video and audio podcasts, and cultural background among others. The variables will be analysed using univariate analysis or tables. The results will be easily compiled using the SPSS version 21. The univariate analysis will indicate details about age distribution frequencies, central tendencies (mean, mode, and median), and dispersions such as range, standard deviation, and variance (Bradley, Curry, Devers 2007). Data Analysis for Study Variables Inferential statistics will be used to elaborate then inferences from the study. Tests that will be conducted include the t-test, Chi-Square test, and one-way ANOVA among other multivariate methods (Bradley, Curry, Devers 2007). Ethics for the Research This research will be conducted after seeking permission various multinational companies that will be selected for the study. The respondents will be issued with consent forms to participate willingly in th e study. Upon their acceptance, they will be engaged in the research (Miller et al. 2012). As aforementioned, the research will seek to investigate effective communication and motivation techniques in the management of in virtual teams across transnational borders. It will focus on seeking ways to alleviate the challenges that are encountered in the management of virtual teams with a view of increasing organisational efficiency. Review of Five Journal Papers relevant to the Topic ‘Leadership for Global Virtual Teams: Facilitating Teamwork Processes’ by Carter, Seely, Dagosta, De-Church, and Zaccaro In their article, Carter et al. (2015) posit that competition, complexities, and structures of organisations in the global scene have undergone tremendous change. However, with increased and sophisticated means of communication, linking virtual teams has become easier. This situation has resulted in effective management of business operations. Carter et al. (2015) further aff irm that managers must ensure a deeper understanding of cultural backgrounds, nationalities, communication technology, and team dynamics to resolve hitches the that arise from the management of virtual teams (Carter et al. 2015). ‘Structuring Successful Global Virtual Teams’ by Miloslavic, Wildman, and Thayer According to Miloslavic, Wildman, and Thayer (2015), teams have become paramount to efficient production in organisations. They further attest that teamwork results in increased the work handling capacity. It also provides new techniques that align with the demands of the global market. However, Miloslavic, Wildman, and Thayer (2015) posit that leaders should consider issues that can arise due to cultural differences. Resourceful collaboration among the members of virtual teams is required for the success of any organisation. However, communication is a crucial factor in creation and maintenance of bonds among employees. Robust communication channels should be deve loped by implementing advanced technological systems. Therefore, managers should ensure that methods such as videoconferencing and teleconferencing are implemented for success in management of virtual teams (Miloslavic, Wildman, Thayer 2015). ‘Leading Global Teams Means Dealing with Different’ by Wildman Griffith Wildman and Griffith (2015) attest that the current global business is faced with challenges that affect efficient virtual team leadership. Leaders must have the right knowledge and tools to explore cultural diversity with a view of alleviating challenges that are related to the embracement of virtual teams. Wildman and Griffith (2015) claim that leaders should be aware of interpersonal cues, diversity inclusion, and appreciation of the world’s diverse cultures. Factors such as virtual communication and mutual leader-follower relationships are paramount to the active contribution towards improved business performance (Wildman Griffith 2015). ‘Cu lture, Communication, and Conflict: A Review of the Global Virtual Team Literature’ by Scott Wildman Scott and Wildman (2015) view virtual teams as the most modern techniques used in various organisations to capture large market shares, meet vast needs of consumers, and overcome geographical barriers. In a research that was conducted prior to publishing of the article, Scott and Wildman (2015) found that the primary issues that dominated their findings regarding virtual information included cultural diversity, effective communication, and conflict management. Scott and Wildman (2015) mentioned that teleconferencing, video conferencing, and e-mailing were the feasible solutions for communication issues among the virtual teams. Understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity also play a critical role in the management of virtual teams (Scott Wildman 2015). ‘Virtual team management: what is causing communication breakdown?’ By Lockwood This article holds that flexibility in organisations and ICT improvement resulted in effective management of virtual teams in global businesses. Lockwood (2015), states that most executives experience management drawbacks due to language, cultural, and geographical barriers. Language complexities, cultural misunderstanding, and marginalisation are threats to the development of collaborative virtual teams. As a result, Lockwood (2015) affirms that there is a need for training staff in communication, leadership skills, and different cultural issues that affect the management of teams across transnational borders. Appendix Time Schedule for the Activities Based on 13-week project the following timeframe is scheduled for various activities Activity Time and Date Draft proposal to supervisor Early May 2015 Submission of the proposal Early May 2015 Approval of proposal End of May 2015 Delivering request letter to research office Early June 2015 Data collection and completion Early June to end of Ju ne 2015 Data analysis and completion Early July 2015 Review findings with supervisor Early July 2015 Review final draft report with supervisor Late July 2015 Submit final report to supervisor Early August 2015 References Abbott, G, Gilbert, K Rosinski, P 2013, Cross-cultural working in coaching and mentoring, John Wiley and Sons, Southern Gate, UK. Aragon, S Johnson, S 2002, ‘Emerging roles and competencies for training in effective communication environments’, Advances in developing human resources, vol. 4 no. 4, pp. 424-439. Bachmann, A 2006, ‘Melting pot or tossed salad? Implications for designing effective multicultural workgroups’, Management International Review, vol. 46 no. 6, pp. 721-748. Bell, B Kozlowski, S 2002, ‘A typology of virtual teams implications for effective leadership’, Group Organisation Management, vol. 27 no.1, pp. 14-49. Bjà ¸rn, P Ngwenyama, O 2009, ‘Virtual team collaboration: building shared me aning, resolving breakdowns and creating translucence’, Information Systems Journal, vol.19 no. 3, pp. 227-253. Bradley, E, Curry, L Devers, K 2007, ‘Qualitative data analysis for health services research: developing taxonomy, themes, and theory’, Health services research, vol. 42 no. 4, pp. 1758-1772. Capece, G Costa, R 2009, ‘Measuring knowledge creation in virtual teams through the social network analysis’, Knowledge Management Research Practice, vol. 7 no. 4, pp. 329-338. Carte, T Deines, S 2013, ‘Conflict, Leadership, and Performance: What Virtual Team Members Need to Know’, Proceedings of the Americas Conference on Information Systems, vol. 2 no. 1, pp. 851-860. Carter, D, Seely, P, Dagosta, J, DeChurch, L Zaccaro, S 2015, Leadership for Global Virtual Teams: Facilitating Teamwork Processes, Springer, New York, NY. Chen, T, Chen, Y Chu, H 2008, ‘Developing a trust evaluation method between co-workers in virtual project team for enabling resource sharing and collaboration’, Computers in Industry, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 565-579. Cheshin, A, Kim, Y, Bos Nathan, D, Ning, N Olson, J 2013, ‘Emergence of differing electronic communication norms within partially distributed teams’, Journal of Personnel Psychology, vol. 12 no. 1, pp. 7. Cifuentes, L Murphy, K 2000, ‘Promoting multicultural understanding and positive self-concept through a distance learning community: Cultural connections’, Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 48 no. 1, pp. 69-83. Cooper, D Emory, D 2002, Business Research Methods, Richard D. Irwin, Chicago. Creswell, J 2013, Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, Sage, London. Davis, N, Fletcher, J Absalom, I 2010, E-learning, mixed mode and distance learning for adult literacy, language and numeracy: A case study of a polytechnic, Wellington, New Zealand. Dekker, D, Rutte, C Van den Berg, P 2008, Ã¢â‚¬Ë œCultural differences in the perception of critical interaction behaviours in global virtual teams’, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, vol. 32 no. 5, pp. 441-452. Earley, C Mosakowski, E 2000, ‘Creating hybrid team cultures: An empirical test of transnational team functioning’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 43 no. 1, pp. 26-49. Erez, M 2010, ‘Culture and job design’, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, vol. 31 no. 3, pp. 389-400. Gazor, H 2012, ‘A Literature Review on Challenges of Virtual Teams Leadership’, Journal of Sociological Research, vol. 3 no. 2, pp. 134. Geister, S, Konradt, U Hertel, G 2006, ‘Effects of process feedback on motivation, satisfaction, and performance in virtual teams’, Small group research, vol. 37 no. 5, pp. 459-489. Holton, J 2001, Building trust and collaboration in a virtual team, Team performance management: an international journal, vol. 7 no. 3, pp. 36-47. Huang, R, Kah ai, S Jestice, R 2010, ‘The contingent effects of leadership on team collaboration in virtual teams’, Computers in Human Behaviour, vol. 26 no. 5, pp. 1098-1110. Hunsaker, P Hunsaker, J 2008, ‘Virtual teams: a leaders guide’, Team Performance Management: An International Journal, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 86-101. Jarvenpaa, S, Shaw, T Staples, D 2004, ‘Toward contextualised theories of trust: The role of trust in global virtual teams’, Information systems research, vol. 15 no. 3, pp. 250-267. Kayworth, T Leidner, D 2002, ‘Leadership effectiveness in global virtual teams’, Journal of Management Information Systems, vol. 18 no. 3, pp. 7-40. Keller, J 2008, ‘First principles of motivation to learn and e3†learning’, Distance Education, vol. 29 no. 2, pp. 175-185. Lockwood, J 2015, ‘Virtual team management: what is causing communication breakdown?’, Language and Intercultural Communication, vol. 15 no. 1, p p. 125-140. Mahoney, J 2010, ‘After KKV: The new methodology of qualitative research’, World Politics, vol. 62 no. 1, pp. 120-147. Malhotra, A Majchrzak, A 2004, ‘Enabling knowledge creation in far-flung teams: best practices for IT support and knowledge sharing’, Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 8 no. 4, pp. 75-88. McArdle, B Anderson, M 2001, ‘Fitting multivariate models to community data: a comment on distance-based redundancy analysis’, Ecology, vol. 82 no. 1, pp. 290-297. Miller, T, Birch, M, Mauthner, M Jessop, J 2012, Ethics in qualitative research, Sage, Newcastle, UK. Miloslavic, S, Wildman, J Thayer, A 2015, Structuring Successful Global Virtual Teams, Springer, New York, NY. Moore, J, Dickson-Deane, C Galyen, K 2011, e-Learning, online learning, and distance learning environments: Are they the same?, The Internet and Higher Education, vol.14 no.2, pp.129–135 Nash, A Kallenbach, S 2009, Making it worth the stay: Find ings from the New England Adult Learner Persistence Project, New England Literacy Resource Center, Boston, MA. Overton, L, Hills, H Dixon, G 2007, Towards maturity: Looking at the impact of effective communication in the workplace, e-Skills, London, UK. Piccoli, G, Powell, A Ives, B 2004, ‘Virtual teams: team control structure, work processes, and team effectiveness’, Information Technology People, vol. 17 no. 4, pp. 359-379. Punch, K 2013, Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches, Sage, London. Rawbone, R 2015, ‘Doing a Successful Research Project- Using Qualitative or Quantitative Methods’, Occupational Medicine, vol. 65 no. 2, pp. 169-170. Scott, C Wildman, J 2015, Culture, Communication, and Conflict: A Review of the Global Virtual Team Literature, Springer, New York, NY. Shachaf, P Hara, N 2006, ‘Team Effectiveness in Virtual Environments: An Ecological Approach’, Teaching and Learning with Virtual Team s, vol. 1 no. 1, pp. 83-108. Siebdrat, F, Hoegl, M Ernst, H 2009, ‘How to manage virtual teams’, MIT Sloan Management Review, vol. 50 no. 4, pp. 63-68. Song, Z Liu, W 2013, ‘The challenge of wide application of information and communication technologies to traditional location theory’, Journal of Geographical Sciences, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 315-330. Stahl, G, Mkel, K, Zander, L Maznevski, M 2010, ‘A look at the bright side of multicultural team diversity’, Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 26 no. 4, pp. 439-447. Stahl, G, Maznevski, M, Voigt, A Jonsen, K 2010, ‘Unraveling the effects of cultural diversity in teams: A meta-analysis of research on multicultural work groups’, Journal of international business studies, vol. 41 no. 4, pp. 690-709. Taha, Z, Ahmed, S Ale Ebrahim, N 2009, ‘Virtual teams: a literature review’, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, vol. 3 no. 1, pp. 3. United Nations Econom ic and Social Council 2006, Bridging the Technology Gap Between and Within Nations, https://unctad.org/en/docs/ecn162006d2_en.pdf. Wagner, D Kozma, R 2005, New technologies for literacy and adult education: A global perspective, UNESCO, Paris. Whatley, J, Zaitseva, E Zakrzewska, D 2009, ‘Student Motivation in International Collaboration: To Participate or Not to Participate?’, Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, vol. 3 no. 1, pp. 1699-1718. Wildman, J Griffith, R 2015, Leading Global Teams Means Dealing with Different, Springer New York. Yip, G Dempster, A 2005, ‘Using the internet to enhance global strategy’, European Management Journal, vol. 23 no. 1, pp. 1-13. Zakaria, N, Amelinckx, A Wilemon, D 2004, ‘Working together apart? Building a knowledge†sharing culture for global virtual teams’, Creativity and innovation management, vol. 13 no. 1, pp. 15-29.

Reading response 11 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reading response 11 - Assignment Example Every individual differs in ability to perform easy and difficult tasks which means it is the variation of WM that differentiates one person from the other. Numbers can be remembered by storing in phonological short-term memory (PSTM), and since such storage can rapidly decay therefore rehearsal process is adopted which is hindered by similar sounding items or long length of words. Short-term memory is enhanced through repetition of words known and the maximum ability to do so in correct order is known as digit span which again depends on articulation rate. In order to assess the capacity of PSTM, one needs to repeat nonsense words, and if long length of such words can be remembered it means PSTM’s capacity is strong. In digit span and nonword repetition, one has to remember not only the items but also the correct sequence. The composition of WM is important for language learning provided the learning process is explicit which means it is intentionally controlled. In another chapter, DeKeyser explores the age effects in second language (L2) learning. It is a common phenomenon that children brought up in a foreign country grow up to speak the native language in their true essence while the parents retain accent of their own language. Researchers have suggested that starting to learn L2 at early age is more convenient since brain plasticity decreases in later age. Although adults can easily learn L2 but still this theory is not opposed for three reasons. One is that adults already have the experience of leaning a language which means they are aware of the basics of learning. Secondly, adults have more cognitive power and so can easily learn specific facets of L2. Finally in spite of learning L2, adults fail to reach the native standard of pronunciation. There are other factors attached to the critical period hypothesis. Studies have shown that children invariably attain native standard L2 which however

The rise and fall of monopolies in America Research Paper

The rise and fall of monopolies in America - Research Paper Example One fact everyone seems to be able to agree upon though is that the slowdown has to do with the market forces. Capitalism, the alleged basis of the economic system of the United States and a large part of the world, invokes the theories of competition and supply and demand among others. However, when a small number of very large corporations control not only supply and demand, but competition too, then capitalism is no longer the type of economic system in practice by those corporations or anyone else for that matter. Instead the economy in that situation is operating under a monopoly, in which one company controls the entire market segment, or under the similar structure of oligopoly, where two or three companies control the portion of the market in which they do business. Think Home Depot and Lowes, Office Depot and Staples, PetCo and Pet Smart, and Perot Systems and NeuStar (aka Lockheed Martin Information Management Systems). Those last two may not be familiar, but they are the perfect example of why oligopolies are just as unfair as monopolies. Perot Systems (yes, Ross Perot) and NeuStar were awarded control over the Number Portability Administration Center (NPAC) in 1996, making the two of them essentially a telephone number oligopoly says Tim McElligott in the June 18, 2007 edition of Telephony. When this two party control of the telephone number industry took place, everyone seemed to be pleased, mainly because it was not a monopoly. No one company had majority control. Most thought the Telecom Act of 1996 would regulate the two companies and make the market fair for both them and consumers. However, that belief did not last long. Perot Systems disappeared from the picture leaving NeuStar the one administrator of NPAC. The inspiration for McEll igott’s article was that in 2007 Telcordia Technologies petitioned the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to enter the market with NeuStar and end the monopoly currently enjoyed by that company.1 One would think this was a no-brainer: one company controls all of a market segment; the FCC can remedy that; it should be a done deal in no time. Think again. According to Telcordia Technologies’ website, the battle between the FCC and NeuStar—as well as others now—to end the monopoly of phone number distribution reached an important point in May of 2011. The FCC issued an order that implemented â€Å"a multi-vendor competitive procurement process for NPAC.†2 Of course, now a round of appeals will ensue. They may already be in the courts now. It will most likely take another year or two before it is decided. We may all be walking around with microchips in our heads before the FCC decides whether NPAC should be regulated by monopoly, oligopoly, or cap italism. Capitalism requires competition to regulate. Consumers want to be able to feel as if they control the way they spend their money. One way they can do that is to â€Å"vote with their wallets/pocketbooks.† If bargain pricing is their aim, then they want to be able to purchase products at low costs. Some consumers are willing to pay more for better service or higher quality products. Consumers may also want variety so that everybody’s tastes are addressed, even the most eclectic. In a capitalistic economic system, consumers have the power to make or break a corporation. In a monopoly or oligopoly, corporations have the power to

Construction (Design and Management) (CDM) Regulations 2007

Construction (Design and Management) (CDM) Regulations 2007 The 2007 Regulations The key aim of CDM 2007 is to incorporate health and safety into management of all construction projects as well as to encourage everyone else in the project to give a combined effort to: Improve the planning and management of projects from the very start Identify risks early on Target effort where it can do the most good in terms of health and safety Discourage unnecessary bureaucracy. The drafters stated goal to remove useless bureaucracy is a definite advance on previous regulations such as manual paperwork that contributes little to risk management and such a waste of resources (according to the ACoP) may prove to be a distraction from actual business leading to risk reduction and risk management. The removal of requirement for a designated planning supervisor and the introduction of the CDM coordinator role is also seen as a positive step by most people. The clients role CDM 2007 stipulates that clients must not â€Å"appoint or engage a CDM coordinator, designer, principal contractor or contractor unless he has taken reasonable steps to ensure that the person to be appointed or engaged is competent† and must then ensure that they co-operate and co-ordinate their efforts. The Approved Code of Practice contains detailed information on the process and procedures that may be followed when determining the competence of the various post holders mentioned above. Clients are expected to make appointments to the above roles at the first opportunity in order to contribute to risk reduction throughout planning stages. It is generally accepted that impractical deadlines as well as failure to assign adequate funds are regarded as two major factors leading to poor control or increased project risk. As such, clients need to consider all resources such as staff equipment and time required for planning and conducting the work correctly when making appointments and inform prospective candidates accordingly. For all construction projects, CDM 2007 says the client needs to: Appoint the right people: competent designers and builders with sufficient resources, who are members of a reputable trade association Allow adequate time; rushed projects are unsafe, poorly planned and poor quality Provide adequate information to their teams, to enable them to design and plan a structure that is safe to build, safe to use and safe to maintain Ensure they communicate and cooperate with their teams throughout the project, especially during the design stage when issues such as buildability, usability and maintainability of the (finished) structure are up for discussion Ensure suitable management arrangements, using practicable risk assessments and workable method statements Make sure adequate welfare facilities are provided on site before work starts Ensure workplaces are designed to comply with the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992. For construction projects that must be notified to the HSE under CDM that is, any project scheduled for more than 30 days or involves more than 500 days of work when all workers time is totalled the client also needs to do the following: Appoint a CDM coordinator to advise and assist on CDM duties (but note that CDM 2007 does not require the CDM coordinator to supervise or monitor work on site) Appoint a principal contractor to plan, manage and coordinate construction Ensure the principal contractor produces a construction phase health and safety plan outlining the key arrangements so as to ensure work is carried out safely and without risks to health; work should not start on site until there is an adequate plan Keep the health and safety file: at the end of the project, the CDM coordinator should hand over the health and safety file to the client (ideally at the topping-out ceremony). The file is a record of useful health and safety information to assist the client in managing risk during maintenance and repair, additional construction work, or even demolition. It should be kept safe (preferably in the building), made available to anyone who needs to alter or maintain the structure, and kept up to date as circumstances change. Coordinator role According to L144 Approved Code of Practice to CDM 2007, the critical role of a CDM coordinator is to reduce risks of being hurt on construction sites. The client has to ensure that a coordinator is appointed up to the end of construction phase of that venture, although the actual company/individual carrying out the role can change. Where no such appointment is made, the client themselves will be held to take on the role of CDM coordinator and accordingly will have to abide by duties imposed in regulations 20 and 21 concerning the CDM coordinator. The duties of the CDM coordinator are to: Give suitable and sufficient advice and assistance to clients to enable them to comply with their duties; Notify the HSE about the project; Co-ordinate design work, planning and other preparation for construction where relevant to health and safety; Identify and collect the pre-construction information and advise the client if surveys need to be commissioned to fill significant gaps; Promptly provide in a convenient form to those involved with the design of the structure and to every contractor who may be or has been appointed by the client, such parts of the preconstruction information that are relevant; Manage the flow of health and safety information between clients, designers and contractors; Advise the client on the suitability of the initial construction phase plan and the arrangements made to ensure that welfare facilities are on site from the start; and Produce or update a relevant, user friendly, health and safety file suitable for future use at the end of the construction phase. Duty details The CDM coordinator is required to help the client to develop an appropriate management arrangement, and needs to advise clients on adequacy of appointed management. There are a number of issues that require consideration including ensuring that: The client is aware of their duties and understands what is expected of them; The principal contractor has been given enough time to plan and prepare for the work; Suitable arrangements are in place for developing the plan to cover risks that arise as the work progresses; The principal contractor has made arrangements for providing welfare facilities on site from the outset; and The PC has prepared a construction phase plan that addresses the main risks during the early stages of construction. When they work on notifiable projects, all contractors must: Check the client is aware of their duties under CDM 2007 and that a CDM coordinator has been appointed Check the CDM coordinator has notified the HSE about the project before work starts Cooperate with the principal contractor in planning and managing work, including agreeing on site rules and reasonable directions Provide details to the principal contractor of any subcontractors they engage in connection with carrying out the work Provide any information needed for inclusion in the health and safety file Promptly inform the principal contractor of any problems with or concerns about either the initial or construction phase health and safety plan Promptly report to the principal contractor any injuries, accidents, occupational diseases or dangerous occurrences. Clients are required to make available project related all health and safety information to the coordinator so that this may be passed onto prospective contractors and designers. A comprehensive list of information is given in the ACoP as an appendix. The information required includes details of the project and the management arrangements, along with information in respect of hazards such as location of utility services, information on existing structures and ground conditions. The principal contractors role Once appointed on a notifiable project, the principal contractors duties are to: Plan, manage and monitor the construction phase in liaison with all contractors and subcontractors Prepare, develop and implement a written construction phase health and safety plan and site rules; the initial plan should be completed and in place before the construction phase begins Ensure that all contractors and subcontractors are given copies of, and made aware of, their relevant parts of the plan Make sure there are adequate welfare facilities on site from the start of the project and that they are maintained and kept clean throughout the construction phase Check the competence of all appointed contractors and subcontractors Ensure everyone on site has a health and safety induction and receives any additional information, instruction and training deemed necessary to undertake their work in a safe and healthy manner Consult all workers on site regularly, ensure the site is secured at all times and Liaise with the CDM coordinator about any ongoing design work. Appointing the coordinator CDM 2007 requires appointment of coordinator to occur at earliest once the preliminary designs or related groundwork for construction project has started. Clearly, appointment of the coordinator will require some form of judgement to be made in terms of whether or not a project is likely to be notifiable. As soon as is practicable is not defined, but the ACoP requires the coordinator to be in a position of aligning health and safety aspects of designs and recommend compatibility and suitability of this design work. In accord, the coordinator needs to be appointed before any major detailed design is worked on. This major detailed design is considered as the preparation for early concept of both implementation and design during strategic briefs (typically Stages A and B of Royal Institute of British Architects plan of work stages). The reason for this is that as a project progresses the level of difficulty for making changes increases which would reduce risks. The coordinator can company or an individual or appointed independently or a combination with other roles (such as project manager or designer). However, the ACoP states that where roles are combined and performed by a single individual, it becomes critical for the CDM coordinator to have adequate independence for carrying out tasks in an effective manner. This can often be the case for larger projects, where tasks may be ‘shared out, but in these circumstances, it is significant to ensure that coordinators duties are clearly laid out and discharged. Assessing competence As with other appointments, coordinators competence must be assessed. As well as the necessary technical expertise, the coordinator will require sufficient social skills so as to promote cooperation between project designers and others. In particular, the ACoP highlights that the coordinator needs sufficient knowledge of: Health and safety in construction work; The design process; and The importance of co-ordination of the design process. The level of education needs to be germane to the project and the client has to consider complexity and size of construction project as well as the type of risks that may emerge. The coordinator does not necessarily have to be a designer, but they do need to have sufficient knowledge of design process so as to better analyse health and safety implications of it. Appendix 4 of the ACoP provides guidance as to the assessment process for both organisations that may be acting as a coordinator, as well as individuals within the organisation or who are acting in a stand-alone capacity. Typically, the evidence needed to demonstrate competence will include: The number of persons engaged in the project who have passed a construction health and safety assessment (eg CITB Construction Skills); Evidence of health and safety knowledge (eg NEBOSH Construction Certificate); Membership of professional bodies with level of membership commensurate with the complexity of the construction project; Evidence of continuing professional development; and Evidence of experience in the particular type of work to be undertaken. The designers role The designers duties according to CDM Regulations are to: Inform the client of client duties under the CDM Regulations and the requirements of the accompanying ACoP (this is still the case under CDM 2007) Ensure the design considers the need to avoid foreseeable risks to construction workers and others affected, such as cleaners (still the case under CDM 2007 and the ACoP) Combat at source risks to the health and safety of construction workers and others affected (still the case under CDM 2007 and the ACoP) Give priority to control measures that protect all on site not just individuals (still the case under CDM 2007 and the ACoP) Ensure that the design includes adequate information about construction site hazards (still the case under CDM 2007 and the ACoP) Cooperate with the planning supervisor and with other designers (not the case under CDM 2007 and the ACoP, as the planning supervisor role has now been replaced by the CDM coordinator, whose main role is to provide the client with a key project adviser on construction health and safety risk management matters; hence the designer needs to liaise with the CDM coordinator as well as with other designers). The importance of the designers role in terms of the ability to design out hazards from the start of any project (risk elimination/avoidance) and the need to specify the use of safer materials and construction methods. The designers role is also important to design the building/structure to be safe to use and maintain and also to provide fundamental information that is to be included in health and safety plan as well as in file. In all construction projects, designers are required to reduce hazards risks during the design stage and present sufficient information regarding effectively combating the remaining (foreseeable) risks. While, for all notifiable projects, designers also have to check that the client has knowledge of their duties under CDM 2007 and also that a CDM coordinator has been timely appointed and provides required information for health and safety file. In line with CDM 2007, designers are not responsible for providing information on unforeseeable risks which cannot realistically be anticipated simply fromdesign brief. Designers are not instructed specify construction methods however, they may do so in cases where the design requires particular construction sequence as well as in cases of a competent contractor requiring such information. Designers also do not have to practice health and safety management functions as they are exercised by contractors or others neither do they have to be concerned in relation to trivial risks. Everyone elses roles Anyone else on site, who doesnt fall into the categories above listed so far, must check their own competence, assist others and organize their work in order to make sure that health and safety of all construction workers and others (such as members of the public) who may possibly be affected by their work activities. Also, they need to report evident risks and follow through requirements laid out in Schedule 3 (workplace inspection reports) and Part 4 (health and safety duties on construction sites) of CDM 2007 for any work under their control. They also need to apply general protection principles as specified in Schedule 1 to the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (Management Regulations) when carrying out their duties. The principles of protection listed in the Management Regulations should be used by all dutyholders under CDM 2007 and direct how they identify and implement precautions necessary to control construction and demolition risks. The principles are: Avoiding risks Evaluating those that cannot be avoided Combating the risks at source Adapting the work to the individual, especially in the design of workplaces, the choice of work equipment and the choice of working and production methods, with a view to alleviating monotonous work and work at a predetermined work rate, and to reducing their effects on health Adapting to technical progress Replacing the dangerous with the non-dangerous or the less dangerous Developing a coherent overall prevention policy which covers technology, organisation of work, working conditions, social relationships, and the influence of factors relating to the working environment Giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures Giving appropriate instructions to employees. However, it is worth mentioning there here there is no explicit mention of the issue and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) anywhere in general principles of protection, reinforcing the view that PPE is not an acceptable control measure but merely a barrier (often temporary) between people and hazards. Issues with Coordinator The CDM coordinator should advise clients on carrying out competency assessments. But frequently the CDM coordinator is appointed at the same time as the principal contractor and often it is the same company. Clearly some earlier advice would be useful to the unsophisticated client when choosing the CDM coordinator and the CDM coordinator should be appointed before anyone else is engaged. In reality, only an appointee can know whether they have the necessary skills and expertise to be truly competent and the client may not have asked about competence in the tender documents. While appointees can be asked to give warranties as to their competency, capacity and resources, these are of little use if there is an incident, a delay or a prosecution. In addition, companies will often put forward their best people to win the contract, but those people might not end up actually doing the work. One way to safeguard against this is to include clauses in the contract of appointment specifying minimum qualifications/competencies/experience levels, or even naming key people. The planning period CDM 2007 requires clients to allocate enough time before construction starts in order to facilitate the planning and preparation. As part of the preconstruction information that clients must provide to the contractors they appoint, they must inform them of minimum time beforehand the construction phase that is basically plans the preparation of construction work. Some standard construction contracts require this CDM planning period to be stipulated in the contract but this is still not common practice. In many cases, the clients lack of knowledge means they are not specifying any planning period and simply giving an end date for works to be completed. Clients are obliged under CDM to provide the â€Å"pre-construction information† that is, information they have already or what is realistically attainable. This might include information about the existing site and structures, including location of services, storage of hazardous materials or the presence of asbestos. Where the information is vital to planning works safely (a ground survey, for example), frequently the client might not already have this information but it would be reasonable for them to obtain it. Uncertainty as to whose responsibility it is to provide reasonably obtainable material can lead to contractors taking risks where timescales are tight. In cases of gaps in information, it may be the clients task to make sure that they present information, but it may be the contractors who are contractually obliged to obtain it. Unsophisticated clients might not have the information, they may not seek the advice they need and they might not want to pay for additional surveys. If clients get the issue of information requests sorted out early on, as part of the procurement or tendering process, they can minimise the risks of a contractor delay. If principal contractors get the issue of information flow sorted out early on, they will minimise the risk from being surprised by site hazards and may even impress the client with their efficiency. However, over the last six months (and even under the old CDM Regulations), a different approach has been common. The principal contractor is frequently required to take the risk of commissioning surveys and to obtain other relevant information which, in many cases, the client should already have. In addition, clients who are tenants of a site will not always seek information from the land or building owner, or tell the principal contractor to ask the owner for further information. Though managing things in this old way is contrary to the spirit of CDM 2007, it should not be problematic so long as the information is actually obtained, collated and provided to the relevant parties early enough to allow for the planning and preparation of the construction works. However, where timescales are tight, risks are likely to be taken which could jeopardise delivery dates as well as profit. Costs of CDM 2007 Implementation HSCs Construction Industry Advisory Committee (‘CONIAC) suggests that the most optimum manner of delivering change is to revise CDM Regulations 94 and also the CHSW Regulations 96 along with supporting ACOP. Such decision reflects experience from past corrective attempts that draw on productive aspects of these measures and is regarded by the construction industry as an acceptable response that adequately addresses the many questions raised, whilst, holding on to commonly accepted principles of CDM Regulations 94 putting into action provisions of TCMS Directive and including Better Regulation principles. Collective costs of implementing CDM Regulations 07 have been anticipated between  £1.0 and  £2.8 billion while, quantified benefits such as safety benefits and productivity improvements are expected within  £1.96 to  £5.9 billion. However, the estimated health and safety benefits are uncertain. Moreover, it is improbable for them to smaller than the figure included within general estimate as health benefits are not quantified. Additionally, the costs to familiarisation CDM Regulations 07 with clients have not been estimated as the number of clients per year is not recorded. However, it is reported that annually 65% of clients are classified as â€Å"repeat clients† and are also assumed be involved in five projects per year while, remaining 35% clients are the only ones involved in single project. Out of which 70% are classified as â€Å"commercial clients†. Supposing client familiarisation with CDM Regulations 07 takes up to eight hours while, receiving an average client wage and a supposed 100% compliance (an unlikely eventuality), then, the present cost of familiarisation is around  £57 million. The objectives that must be met on any construction project such as quality, cost and time objectives can be listed as major priorities. However, the key to achieving these objectives is usually the strength of the relationship with the client. This requires a sound understanding of their requirements. Construction companies tend to not work with a client if the relationship is anticipated to be adversarial and instead choose to work as collaborative partners in order to achieve successful project outcomes. It is also important to establish a strong and effective project team by choosing people that are well suited to the specific project. This needs very careful consideration in relation to complex projects, such as the Olympic Park development. Previously, relationships between designers, engineers and quantity surveyors were often adversarial, while, successful projects require the team members to work in a collegiate fashion with mutual respect for one another so that they can each perform at their best. The ‘Constructing Excellence agenda has not been sufficiently embraced by the industry as a whole, although there are some good examples of projects that have successfully adopted the initiatives. For instance, private construction companies have embraced ideas such as standardisation to drive down cost and increase value. There have also been similar initiatives in the public sector. A good example is the MODs Single Living Accommodation Modernisation programme (‘SLAM) which sets out to upgrade the worst service personnel accommodation by 2012. In light of these positive examples, it is possible for the industry as a whole to adopt better practice and achieve greater success. Indeed, there are considerable financial pressures on projects in the current downturn and so it is imperative that more efficient methods are adopted to provide better value for money to clients. Adopting smarter ways of working makes it possible to reduce construction costs by 20-30% and not by cutting the contractors margin which is usually counter-productive and does not yield significant savings in any case. Real savings can be achieved by standardising construction and simplifying the procurement process. Under control The CDM Regulations 2007 establish a clear procedure for managing health and safety risk on construction sites. Prior to adoption of latest regulations, the HSE held a very constructive dialogue with the industry over a period of six years, which has meant that they have quickly received tacit acceptance. Construction companies have implemented initiatives to bring about behavioural and cultural change with respect to health and safety. For instance, there are ‘incident/injury free policies on our which have been taken up by others. More can be done by the industry as a whole and it is important to share ideas on best practice. There are various initiatives that the HSE have been engaged with recently, such as worker involvement, site induction training and supervisor competency. The HSE is much maligned in the press but that emanates from peoples misunderstanding of its role. The first aspect to note is that HSE is not accountable for prescribing how activities should be conducted. In fact, the onus is on the individual or organisation carrying out such a task to undertake their own risk assessment to determine the safest method of working using the available guidance from bodies such as the HSE. The HSEs purpose is to administer health and safety law and regulations and it has an enforcement role where there have been breaches. In light of the risks highlighted by the recent crane collapses, the Tower Crane Action Group has consulted widely and has published excellent guidance, which is available on the Strategic Forum website. Similarly, the HSE produce excellent best practice guidance notes, which are available to down load on their website. The guidance is aimed at various types of business, although sadly it is not always being followed. Had the HSE guidance on running a hair salon been followed, for example, then the recently publicised incident of a hairdresser disfiguring a customer with toxic hair products could have been avoided. Additionally, organisations are not properly addressing occupational health hazards. Three thousand people a year die from occupational health issues and scores of people suffer from illness and disability Conclusion Under the predecessor to CDM, the principal contractor was seen by the HSE as being in control of the whole construction site. But in practice, there were often difficulties controlling the entire site, and in particular in supervising subcontractors or the clients nominated subcontractors work. This is still difficult to manage, and particularly where there is no contractual right to restrict attendance on site. Clients own contractors will often turn up on their sites while principal contractors are supposed to be in control. Utilities companies or other contractors may have separate contracts with the client and the principal contractor will have to deal with these in addition to agreed site procedures and the existing programme. In contract, a client can allow the principal contractor to control access to the site for all subcontractors and also require any subcontractors to carry out detailed supervision of their workers. In some cases, a site lease may even be appropriate. The client has to carry out competency checks on any contractors they instruct before appointment. In the contracts, it is also possible to specify who should carry out continued monitoring on the site to inform the client about ongoing competence, to restrict entry to the site or to restrict contractors ability to tender for future work. The ACoP clarifies that it is the clients duty to perform practical steps for ensuring suitable management arrangements carry out their duties throughout the construction project by in such a manner as to preclude risks to health. This is in addition to the duty to ensure that principal contractors prepare a construction phase plan that complies with CDM 2007 as well as welfare installations that would be adequate throughout construction phase. Clients arent required actually to manage the works but they do have to check that all management arrangements are appropriate and are being followed though from the initial stages of project. The ACoP specifies that they are allowed to rely on advices of a competent CDM coordinator for making judgments as to the adequacy of the management arrangements. Clients also need to be careful to not take an active role in managing construction works because CDM 2007 places liability on those who control or run the manner in which construction projects are carried out. Similarly, principal contractors need to make it clear who is carrying out the detailed supervision and whether they have control over the subcontractors activities on site if they are to seek to take advantage of the ACoPs advice that principal contractors do not have to undertake the responsibility of detailed supervisions of the contractors work. In summary, the management arrangements that can be detailed in the contract include: Control over the site Control over subsubcontracting without notification Ongoing competency checks Levels of detailed supervision required of subcontractors The time allowed for planning and preparation The arrangement for communicating among the dutyholders and reporting to the client The provision of pre-construction information and reasonably obtainable information The format and quality of information for the health and safety file The provision of the construction phase plan and all updates to the client (and cdm coordinator). The more that is set down in the contract, the less likely any of the duties are to fall between the stools of the dutyholders. Increasing the level of detail in the contracts can help to safeguard all parties against delays caused by incidents or regulatory breaches (which can often wipe out the profit on a project). It can also be useful in removing uncertainty which in turn could help to prevent accidents or even reduce the need for any of the parties to develop a defence to a charge under health and safety legislation. References (2007). CDM UPDATE: After a long consultation the new CDM regulati